Can lubrication of the eyelid speculum reduce overall pain perception associated with cataract surgery by phacoemulsification performed under topical anesthesia?

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of using the lubricated eyelid speculum on the overall pain perception by the subject patients who underwent cataract surgery by phacoemulsification technique under topical anesthesia. Methods: A prospective interventional randomized comparative study was conducted at the tertiary eye care center, wherein adult patients scheduled for bilateral cataract surgery with phacoemulsification techniques under topical anesthesia were randomized to undergo surgery with two different modes of eyelid speculum insertion, either with or without lubrication of the eyelid speculum. Fifty percent of the patients underwent surgery with eyelid speculum without lubrication, and 50% with lubrication of the eyelid speculum. The primary outcome was to compare the level of overall pain perception among the subject patients of the two groups by using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) in the immediate postoperative period. Results: The study included 130 patients who underwent bilateral cataract surgery (n = 260 eyes) under topical anesthesia, wherein n = 130 eyes underwent surgery using lubricated eyelid speculum and n = 130 eyes underwent surgery with dry eyelid speculum. Pain perception score assessed on the VAS (0–10 cm) ranged from 0.5 to 6, with a mean ± standard deviation of 2.06 ± 1.12. A significant correlation was found with two different methods of eyelid speculum insertion with reduced overall pain perception in patients with the use of lubricated eyelid speculum compared to the dry eyelid speculum (P = 0.0001). Conclusion: The overall pain perception associated with cataract surgery performed by phacoemulsification technique under topical anesthesia can be further minimized by lubricating the eyelid speculum prior to insertion for exposing the globe

Safety and efficacy of ayush rasayana A and B in improving functionality of the elderly – A single-arm multicenter study

Background: As per Ayurvedic classics, Ras?yana is a term used for unique therapeutic measures intended to improve cognition, memory, physical strength and delay the degenerative processes. Ayush Rasayana A & B are developed from extracts of herbs pertaining rasayana property. Aims & Objectives: To assess the safety and effectiveness of ‘Ayush Rasayana A and B’ in improving physical endurance, quality of life and cognition of elderly. Materials and Methods: This is an open label, single arm, multi-centre study among 256 apparently healthy elderly between 60?75 years. Ayush Rasayan A was given for 6 days and Ayush Rayana B for 180 days. The effect of the trial drug was seen on functional capacity, quality of life and cognitive function and, safety of the intervention was assessed through haematological and biochemical tests, clinical examination and incidence of adverse events. Results: Significant improvement in 6 minute walk test and HMSE score was observed at 187th as compared to baseline (p<0.0001). Quality of life of the participants especially in domains of physical health, social relationship and environment also improved at the end of intervention period (p<0.0001). The haematological and bio-chemical parameters showed no significant changes as compared to baseline and no adverse events were observed during the study. Conclusion: Ayush Rasayana A and Ayush Rasayana B, both were well tolerated by all the participants. This ayurvedic intervention can be safely given to apparently healthy elderly to improve their functionality, quality of life and cognition. However, a randomized controlled trial is warranted to substantiate the efficacy of this drug.

Surgically induced astigmatism and posterior corneal curvature changes following phacoemulsification

Purpose: To primarily compare surgically induced astigmatism (SIA), total and posterior corneal curvature, pachymetry, and their stabilization after 2.2 and 2.8 mm clear corneal incision in phacoemulsification. Methods: A randomized, prospective interventional study of 130 patients (130 eyes) of either sex having senile cataract (>40 years) divided randomly into two groups. The patients underwent uncomplicated phacoemulsification surgery with foldable intraocular lens implantation using 2.2 mm (group 1) and 2.8 mm incisions (group 2). The patients were evaluated preoperatively and followed?up at first, third, and sixth weeks. Results: Mean SIA was less in group 1 at all the follow?up visits which was not statistically significant (P value – 0.507 (at week 1), 0.626 (at week 3), and 0.312 (at week 6). Mean SIA decreased from week 1 to week 6 in both the groups. Both the groups showed an increase in SIA with the increase in the hardness of cataract. Posterior keratometry (k1 and k2) showed statistically significant steepening in the first postoperative week, followed by gradual flattening which continued till the sixth week postoperatively. Posterior astigmatism increased in both the groups at week 1 (not statistically significant). Thereafter, it decreases and does not change significantly after 3 weeks. Pachymetry increased significantly (P value < 0.001 in both the groups) in the first week in both the groups and thereafter stabilizing at 3 weeks. Conclusion: Reducing the incision size does not result in any significant reduction in SIA. We observed that the posterior corneal curvature majorly stabilized by 3 weeks, but some stabilization continued till 6 weeks.

A comparative study of smica in various body fluids of diagnosed cervical cancer patients and healthy women

Objective@#Cervical cancer (CC) is a major public health problem in women, and its early detection can help reduce morbidity and mortality. The objective of this study was to compare serum levels of soluble major histocompatibility complex class I-related chain A (sMICA) levels in various body fluids between women diagnosed with CC and healthy women. @*Methods@#A case-control study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital and a cancer center in Kolhapur, India. Overall, 150 individuals (100 CC patients and 50 healthy women) participated after providing informed written consent. Demographic data, histopathology history, parity, and tumor, node, and metastasis (TNM) staging data were collected. Pap smears, saliva, blood, and urine samples were collected. Pap smears were examined microscopically, and sMICA levels in all samples were determined by enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA). @*Results@#The mean age of women with cervical cancer was 49.86±8.18 years. Squamous cell carcinoma (70%) was the most common histological variant in CC patients. Serum soluble sMICA levels differed significantly with parity and TNM staging (P<0.05). Mean levels of sMICA were significantly different in samples (CC cases vs. healthy patients; saliva: 166.721±108.718 vs. 0.039±0.005 pg/mL; urine: 82.921±45.580 vs. 0.010±0.005 pg/mL; serum: 35.756±10.799 vs. 0.039±0.005 pg/mL, P<0.001). @*Conclusion@#Levels of sMICA in body fluids can be considered as a diagnostic or prognostic tool to determine disease progression or tumor regression.

Clinical and laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis score in predicting the outcomes in necrotizing soft tissue infection patients

Background: Necrotizing soft tissue infection (NSTI) is a serious condition that can be diagnosed on a high index of suspicion and require urgent surgical treatment. NSTI involved epidermis and dermis but more frequently it affects the deeper layer of adipose tissue, fascia, and muscle. NSTI diagnosis and its treatment include emergent surgical intervention and the use of appropriate antibiotics. In this study, we have been evaluated the laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis (LRINEC) score in predicting the outcomes in patients of NSTI.Methods: We have conducted a prospective study of 36 patients with NSTI. The LRINEC score, predisposing factors, etiology, risk factors, causative microbiological organisms have been studied.Results: LRINEC score >8 is associated with NSTI in all cases. The mortality and morbidity, length of stay including ICU stay increases with an increase in LRINEC score. The most common microorganism was found to be E. coli followed by Klebsiella.Conclusions: Although, we used the emergent and liberal debridement and appropriate antibiotic and resuscitation. In this study, morbidity, mortality, and length of hospital stay all are increased with respect to the increase in LRINEC score.

Association of trisomy 21 with anorectal malformation: a cytogenetic study

Background: Anorectal malformations (ARM) are congenital malformations of digestive system resulting from the disturbed development of hindgut during embryogenesis. ARMs involve both sexes; can occur either isolated or in association with other congenital abnormalities and may be associated with chromosomal abnormalities. Association of trisomy 21 with anorectal malformation is well documented. Present study was conducted to assess prevalence of association of trisomy 21 in patients with anorectal malformation.Methods: Total 48 children with diagnosis of anorectal malformation, who were admitted in Department of Paediatric Surgery, King George’s Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, were selected for the study. Blood samples were collected and their cytogenetic analysis was carried out in the Cytogenetics laboratory, Department of Anatomy, KGMU-U.P, Lucknow, India.Results: Among the 48 study subjects, karyogram could be successfully obtained for 45 cases (93.75%). Numerical anomalies were observed in 8.9% cases. Trisomy 21 was found in 6.7%. The prevalence of trisomy 21 was found to more in males (4.5%) as compared to females (2.2%). Prevalence was highest in birth order 3(20%), followed by birth order 2(7.14%) and lowest in birth order 1(3.85%). Trisomy in association with ARM; was observed in children born to females aged >30 years. It was found unrelated to the history of consanguinity.Conclusions: Prevalence of association of trisomy 21 with ARM was found to be 6.7%. This coexistence emphasizes the need for a thorough investigation of patients with ARM.

The study of serum uric acid in cerebrovascular accident patients and correlation with hypertension

Background: Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is also called Stroke. These is a well-recognized epidemiological link between elevated serum uric acid and increased cerebrovascular risk. Several studies have identified as elevated serum uric acid concentration as a predictor of cerebrovascular events. The aim of this study was to correlate serum uric acid in cerebrovascular accident (CVA) patients with Hypertension.Methods: A prospective study was conducted on 100 patients aged >18 years of admitted with new onset focal/global neurological deficit/event with cerebrovascular accident (CVA). Brain imaging (CT/MRI) was performed on the patients within 24-48 hrs of admission. Data was collected with regards to patient’s demography, medical history, risk factors for stroke or vascular disease. Serum uric acid was measured as part of fasting biochemical profile taken within 24-48 hrs of admission by standard analytical methods in Biochemistry department.Results: Out of 100 patients included in this study 74 of them were male and 26 were female. Among 100 patients 61 patients had hemorrhage, out of which 45 (73.77%) were male and 16 (26.23%) were female, followed by 39 patients had infract, out of which 29 (74.35%) were male and 10 (25.65%) were female. Mean value of serum uric acid levels in hypertensive patients was significantly high in comparison to normotensive patients.Conclusions: Concluded that correlation of serum uric acid in cerebrovascular accident (CVA) patients with Hypertension was found statistically significant.

Interactome of vertebrate GAF/ThPOK reveals its diverse functions in gene regulation and DNA repair

GAGA associated factor (GAF) is a sequence-specific DNA binding transcription factor that is evolutionarilyconserved from flies to humans. Emerging evidence shows a context-dependent function of vertebrate GAF(vGAF, a.k.a. ThPOK) in multiple processes like gene activation, repression, and enhancer-blocking. Wehypothesize that context-dependent interaction of vGAF with a diverse set of proteins forms the basis for themultifunctional nature of vGAF. To this end, we deciphered the protein–protein interactome of vGAF andshow that vGAF interacts with chromatin remodelers, RNA metabolic machinery, transcriptional activators/repressors, and components of DNA repair machinery. We further validated the biological significance of ourprotein–protein interaction data with functional studies and established a novel role of vGAF in DNA repairand cell-survival after UV-induced DNA damage. One of the major risk factors for skin cutaneous melanoma isprolonged exposure of UV and subsequent DNA damage. vGAF is highly expressed in normal skin tissue.Interestingly, our analysis of high-throughput RNA-sequencing data shows that vGAF is heavily downregulated across all major stages of skin cutaneous melanoma suggesting its potential as a diagnostic biomarker.Taken together, our study provides a plausible explanation for the diverse gene regulatory functions of vGAFand unravels its novel role in DNA repair.

Study of prescribing pattern of drugs used in the treatment of bronchial asthma at tertiary care hospital of northern India

Background: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease requiring long term treatment. For an effective control of asthma symptoms background knowledge of the prescribing pattern of anti-asthmatic drugs is a must.Methods: A prospective, observational study was conducted in the Department of Respiratory Medicine OPD, King George's Medical University, Lucknow. 114 patients of asthma were recruited for the study. A case report form was filled from patient’s prescription containing the demographic details of the patients, presenting complaints, investigations and drugs prescribed along with their dose, duration, frequency, route of administration.Results: 114 patients’ prescriptions were assessed which showed average number of drugs per prescription - 3.22. 42.8% and 50% of the drugs were prescribed in accordance with World Health Organization model list of essential medicines and National list of essential medicines. Short acting ?2 agonist (salbutamol), 61.4% was the most commonly and frequently prescribed single anti asthmatic drug. Combination of inhaled corticosteroid and long acting ?2 agonist, 86.8% was the most commonly prescribed fixed dose combination anti asthmatic drug. Inhalational route (75%) was the most preferred one over oral route (25%).Conclusions: Asthma being a chronic disease requires prolonged treatment which imposes economic burden on the patients. Judicious prescription of drugs not only improves the patient clinically but also removes the unnecessary burden. Data obtained from these studies can be used as a guide to make future decisions regarding standard prescription.

Genomic organization of Polycomb Response Elements and its functional implication in Drosophila and other insects

The epigenetic memory is an essential aspect of multicellular organisms to maintain several cell types and their geneexpression pattern. This complex process uses a number of protein factors and specific DNA elements within thedevelopmental cues to achieve this. The protein factors involved in the process are the Polycomb group (PcG)members, and, accordingly, the DNA sequences that interact with these proteins are called Polycomb ResponseElements (PREs). Since the PcG proteins are highly conserved among higher eukaryotes, including insects, andfunction at thousands of sites in the genomes, it is expected that PREs may also be present across the genome. However,the studies on PREs in insect species, other thanDrosophila, is currently lacking.We took a bioinformatics approach todevelop an inclusive PRE prediction tool, ‘PRE Mapper’, to address this need. By applying this tool on the Drosophilamelanogaster genome, we predicted[20,000 PREs. When compared with the available PRE prediction methods, thistool shows far better performance by correctly identifying the in vivo binding sites of PcG proteins, identified bygenome-scale ChIP experiments. Further analysis of the predicted PREs shows their cohabitation with chromatindomain boundary elements at several places in the Drosophila genome, possibly defining a composite epigeneticmodule. We analysed 10 insect genomes in this context and find several conserved features in PREs across the insectspecies with some variations in their occurrence frequency. These analyses leading to the identification of PRE in insectgenomes contribute to our understanding of epigenetic mechanisms in these organisms.

The study of correlation between Body Mass Index and glycemic control-HbA1c in diabetes type 2 patients

Background: Obesity has major adverse effects on health. Obesity is associated with an increase in mortality, with a 50-100% increased risk of death from all causes compared to normal-weight individuals, mostly due to cardiovascular causes. The aim of this study was to correlate Body Mass Index (BMI) and glycaemic control (HbA1c) in type 2 Diabetic patients.Methods: In this study 100 patients of type 2 diabetic were subjected to detailed history, clinical examination, BMI, HbA1c and routine biochemical investigations.Results: Out of 100 diabetic patients included in this study 62 of them were male and 38 were female. Among 100 patients. Majority of patients were overweight (BMI 25-29.9) which is account to about 58 of total cases, 30 patients were normal BMI and 12 patients were obese. Statistical analysis a positive correlation found between BMI and poor glycaemic control (HbA1c), which is significant.Conclusions: From this study it was concluded that obesity (BMI) is associated with poor glycaemic control.

Study of prevalence and types of anemia in primary hypothyroidism

Background: Hypothyroidism is common disease with varying frequency between countries. Anemia in hypothyroidism can be normocytic normochromic, microcytic hypochromic and macrocytic hypochromic. Anemia severity is associated with hypothyroidism degree. Objective of this study to study the association between anemia and hypothyroidism and prevalence and types of anemia in primary hypothyroidism (subclinical and overt both).Methods: This cross sectional study was carried out at tertiary care hospital in North India. Newly diagnosed 100 primary hypothyroid patients and 100 controls with age and sex matched evaluated for anemia. Prevalence and types of anemia were studied and severity of anemia was correlated with that of hypothyroidism.Results: Anemia was observed in 90 patients with hypothyroidism. Symptoms due to anemia were higher in cases than in controls. RBCs morphology showed normocytic normochromic in 59, microcytic hypochromic in 26 and macrocytic hypochromic in 15 cases. Serum anti-TPO positivity was present in 71.1% in cases as compared to 33.33% in controls. Anemia was severe in cases with high TSH.Conclusions: Anemia was more prevalent in cases of hypothyroidism than in euthyroid controls. Normocytic normochromic type of anemia was most common type in this study. Serum anti-TPO positivity was 71.1% in cases. There was statistically significant negative correlation between TSH and haemoglobin. Symptoms of anemia were more in hypothyroid patients than in euthyroid anemic patients.

Trend of clients attending an integrated councelling and testing centre of a tertiary care hospital in North Karnataka: a record based study

Background: The prevalence of HIV among the adult population has continued a steady decline at the national level from an estimated peak of 0.4% in 2000 down to 0.26% in 2015. The data generated by ICTC may provide important clues to understand the epidemiology of the disease in a specific area, as well as pattern of risk behavior of the population.Methods: The present retrospective record based cross sectional study was carried out at the ICTC Centre of SDM College of Medical Sciences and Hospital, Dharwad. Retrospective data for the past six years (2012-13 to 2017-18) on clients visiting the ICTC was collected from the ICTC registers.Results: A total of 45,066 clients attended the ICTC over a period of 6 years, among which 61.6% were females and 38.4% were males. Among the total females, 55% were antenatal mothers. Out of the total clients tested, 99.75% of clients underwent post-test counseling. Among the total clients, 669 were HIV sero-positive clients out of which majority (61.7%) were males. The total positivity rate was 1.48% among the ICTC attendees. 47 clients had co-infections with TB.Conclusions: The challenge is to increase access to and uptake of HIV testing priority. Intense IEC activities for behaviour change at grass root level populations should be encouraged.

Community awareness on dengue and practices of mosquito bite prevention in urban residents of a central Indian city, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh

Background: Dengue is an arboviral, mosquito borne illness caused by bite of infected aedes mosquitoes which breed commonly on household water containers like cooler tank, fridge trays and flower pots. Though dengue is non fatal illness but it may lead to deaths from dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome. The objective of the study was to assess the community awareness regarding dengue and practices primarily being used as personal protection measures against mosquito bites and abolition of household breeding sites of mosquitoes.Methods: A cross sectional observational study done in 5 randomly selected wards of the municipal corporation Sagar. 400 households were studied, selecting 80 houses from each ward randomly. Pretested structured questionnaire was used for interview with the head of family/adult member of the family. The data collected was analysed using SPSS software and chi square test was applied as test of significance.Results: The households studied were mostly (28.2%) of lower middle class (modified B G Prasad scale). the dengue awareness in the community was fair (44.25%) and satisfactory (46.25) in Likert scale. Awareness regarding household breeding sites of mosquitoes was absolute (100%) but the use of personal protective measures was partial (50%).Conclusions: The knowledge and awareness to stop the mosquito breeding, biting should be enhanced and should be turned into action.

Assessment of body mass index and prevalence of obesity among undergraduate medical students: an observational study in a tertiary care teaching hospital of Madhya Pradesh

Background: Obesity is the major cause of various non-communicable diseases including diabetes mellitus, hypertension. The modifiable factors like stress, sedentary life, consumption of soft drinks and fast foods and lack of physical activity are responsible for it. Objective: to find dietary pattern, physical activity and status of overweight and obesity among medical students.Methods: It was a cross sectional observational study conducted on MBBS undergraduates studying in a g medical college at Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh, India. Out of nearly 500 medical students studying in different semesters, 300 students were participated in the study though the required sample size was 184 only. Structured questionnaire for interview, calibrated portable weight scale for weight measurement and stadiometer for height measurement were used.Results: The students were categorised into underweight, normal and overweight/obese on the basis of their calculated BMI (body mass index) value as per norms of World health organization for south Asian populations. 26.7% medical students were found to be overweight or obese based on BMI cut off value 23.00 kg/m2. There was lack of inclusion of fresh fruits and green vegetables in regular diet in 50% and nearly 95% of medical students respectively. The low level of physical activity was found in more than 85% of the medical students.Conclusions: The involvement of medical students in physical and sports activities is dire need for their good health.

Assessment of treatment seeking behavior of malaria suspected fever patients attending urban health and training centre Chameli Chouk, Sagar

Background: As malaria is among the leading public health problems globally as well as in India, early diagnosis and treatment of cases is one of the key interventions for its control and elimination. Present study was done to assess treatment-seeking behaviour and associated factors among malaria suspected patients.Methods: Present study was carried out at urban health and training center, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh. The hospital based prospective study by facility based identification of patients. Study was under taken from 1st Oct 2018 to 31st march 2019. All malaria suspected cases of fever cases who got tested for malaria. Purposive sampling technique. After a pilot study final questionnaire regarding treatment seeking behavior were used to collect information from 285 patients of fever data was analyzed in word excel 2007 using percentage and proportion.Results: In present study we found that out of 285 patients only 54 (18.94%) patient approached health facility within 24 hours. Majority of patient 93(32.63%) adopted self medication practice, 20.00% patient, who did nothing and waited for self resolution of fever. Majority of 39.82% answered mildness of disease as a reason for delay in getting treatment.Conclusions: A low proportion of malaria-suspected patients sought treatment within 24 h of fever onset compared to the national target. Awareness about the advantage early treatment-seeking need to be increased through health education and behavioural change communication.

Prevalence, Risk Factors and Impact of Subclinical Endometritis on Reproductive Performance of Nili-Ravi Buffalo

Subclinical endometritis (SCE) is the inflammation of endometrium without systemic illness, hence remains mostly undiagnosed and untreated. The early diagnosis necessitates the evaluation of important risk factors. The objective of this study was to identify the risk factors of SCE and their effects on reproductive performance of Nili-Ravi buffalo. 100 buffaloes approaching parturition were selected. During calving, various risk factors viz., type of calving, peri-parturient disorders, sex and birth weight of calf, gestation period and season of calving were recorded. Buffaloes were subjected to endometrial cytology using cytobrush method on 45 day postpartum (DPP) and divided into 2 groups viz., buffaloes ‘with SCE’ (>5% PMN; n=38) and ‘without SCE’ (≤5% PMN; n=62). Buffaloes in estrus were artificially inseminated and fertility parameters were recorded. The occurrence of SCE was significantly affected by calving assistance (OR=11.74; P<0.001), peri-parturient disorders (OR=6.87; P<0.05) and gestation period (OR=1.16; P<0.05). Sex, birth weight of calf and season of calving were not associated with SCE. The service period of buffaloes did not vary between two groups. The median days open was significantly (P<0.05) higher in buffaloes with as compared to buffaloes without SCE (141 vs. 117 d). Buffaloes with SCE had significantly (P<0.05) lower first service conception (21.1 vs. 43.5%) and took more (P<0.05) mean number of services per conception (2.71 vs. 1.62) compared to buffaloes without the SCE. It may be concluded that risk factors around the time of calving control the onset of SCE which in turn has negative impact on reproductive performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes

An observational study to analyze predisposing factors, causality, severity and preventability of adverse drug reactions among multidrug resistant tuberculosis patients treated under RNTCP program in Northern India

Background: There were 4.1% of all new cases and 19% of previously treated patients were diagnosed with either multidrug resistant or rifampicin resistant tuberculosis in 2016. In the state of Uttar Pradesh, there were 2.16 new cases and 44,531 previously treated cases. The objectives of the study were to assess the predisposing factors, causality assessment, severity grading and avoidability of the adverse drug reactions (ADRs) of the antitubercular drugs in MDR-TB patients in a tertiary care hospital of northern India.Methods: This prospective observational study was conducted for 12 months at a tertiary care hospital. The patients with MDR tuberculosis on treatment with DOTS Plus regimen under RNTCP and who met the inclusion exclusion criteria were recruited after informed consent. ADRs were monitored daily till the patients remained admitted and thereafter monthly. Predisposing factors were recorded. Causality assessment was performed by Naranjo scale and WHO UMC scale, severity by Hartwig’s scale and avoidability by Halla’s scale.Results: There were 115 patients were recruited, 70 developed at least one ADR. 98 ADRs were reported. The commonest ADR reported were – gastrointestinal (38.76%), neurological (21.24%) and hepatobiliary (8.16%). Diabetes and HIV predisposed to development of ADRs. 58.18% ADRs were classified as possible and 37.5% as probable by Naranjo’s scale. 51.02% ADRs were classified as probable and 42.83% as possible by WHO-UMC. 56% were classified as mild, 36% moderate, and 6% severe via Hartwig’s scale. 51 ADRs were classified as avoidable and 40 ADRs were possibly avoidable.Conclusions: Monitoring and assessment of ADRs is necessary to promote awareness, curb resistance and maintain adherence.

How the loss in academics and research occurs by stopping animal experimentation in medical curriculum

Use of animals in experimentation and research has always been a topic of great debate. Some express their strong support while others are against animal research practices and want their complete abolition.1 At present, there is a pill for every ill. Rapid advancement in the field of science and technology contributed in discovering cure and medications even for the rarest of the rare diseases. Most of the present day discoveries in medical science lay their foundation on animal experimentation. The use of drugs in clinical practice have been possible only after going through successful animal studies for safety, efficacy and toxicity.